Author: CPR Staff

THE NEUTRAL’S NOTEPAD: Writing an Award that Withstands the Scrutiny of the Parties and the Courts

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THE NEUTRAL’S NOTEPAD: Writing an Award that Withstands the Scrutiny of the Parties and the Courts

Eaton_TimBy J. Timothy Eaton

The end game in arbitrations is the final award. In most business-to-business commercial arbitrations, the final award is a reasoned explanation of the facts and law, and the relief being awarded. Since most arbitration awards are confidential, the audience for the written award is the parties and if subject to a review, the courts. What should be considered in writing an award that will withstand their scrutiny?

The first consideration is the title of the award. How the award is labeled is important and has consequences. If it is titled an “Interim Award,” its duration should be no longer than the arbitration itself and it should be entitled to reconsideration at any time before the final award is entered.

If it is a “Partial Final Award” – such as a finding as to liability only – it generally would not be subject to a reconsideration and may be appealable to the courts unless the tribunal indicates otherwise. The tribunal should make its intention clear as to whether it intends for the award to be judicially reviewable at that stage or not.

If it is a “Final Award,” the assumption is the tribunal has completed its task and the award is subject to enforcement or judicial review. The tribunal’s authority is over at that point.

Once the award has been labeled properly, the next step in preparing the award is to identify the parties and their status. This may seem obvious, but the issues and the relief may depend upon which party is raising a claim or defense. With the frequency of counterclaims, characterizing who is bringing the claim and the relief sought becomes an important point in the analysis.

Most arbitrators then like to proceed with a factual and procedural background to set the framework for the issues and analysis. This certainly makes sense, but first it may be helpful to consider the issues that you are going to be resolving. The issues really control the findings and facts which are necessary to recite in the award. What facts are material to the issues will become more evident once you have articulated the issues being decided.

Most arbitrators then set forth the procedural history by identifying what has occurred prior to the hearing. This section is really more for reviewing courts than for the parties because the parties know what has transpired. But is important for someone new to the arbitration to understand that the parties had an ample opportunity to engage in discovery, make their arguments, submit their exhibits and have their witnesses heard and examined. Some of the grounds for vacatur are based upon whether the parties had a fair and meaningful opportunity to present their case, so spelling out in detail how the arbitration progressed lends credence to the award.

Then the crux of the award follows with the statement of the issues that the parties are raising and how they are decided. It is critical that a party understands that the tribunal understood what issues they were raising. The tribunal may not agree with a party’s position on a given issue, but both for the purposes of confidence in the award and its possible reviewability, every material issue that was raised should be identified and ruled upon. A “sweeper” clause that issues not identified were fully considered (a clause I have used myself at times) is not generally satisfactory to the parties or to reviewing courts. The tribunal’s ruling on the merits of the issue is really secondary to the fact that the issues were properly identified.

Next is the analysis of the material issues and the reasoning behind the conclusions reached. Each conclusion should be supported by a logical interpretation of the facts and law. References to case law are not always necessary but if there are statutes or authorities on given issues that the parties have relied upon, some reference to them in the award will at least signal that they were considered.

Most tribunals are both very measured in their analysis of the issues and not unduly critical of a party’s position. Arguments made by the parties are generally made in good faith and, even if you disagree with them, they should be treated with the same measure of good faith.

Last but not least, the award should specify the relief being afforded. It is a good practice to have the parties in the prehearing briefs state specifically the relief they are seeking in the claims or counterclaims. Sometimes an earlier filed claim is not clear as to what relief the party is seeking, and the relief sought may change as the discovery in the arbitration unfolds. So a delineation in the prehearing brief of the issues and the relief sought is very helpful to the tribunal.

After considering the specific relief requested, it is a good idea to review the arbitration agreement again to determine whether it has any limits on what relief can be given. Limits on punitive damages in particular are frequently included in the arbitration agreement. Other limitations may include a bar on consequential damages or attorneys fees.

Finally, do a gut check on what final relief should be ordered. Is it warranted by the facts in the law? Are you compromising the award because you do not agree with the law? Is it what the parties expect? Before you pull the trigger, you want to make sure your aim is on what the arbitration agreement contemplates and more importantly, requires.

In conclusion, each step in writing the award from the title to the relief must be carefully considered. The result is sometimes not as important as the process achieving it. Make sure the award informs parties and the courts as to how you arrived at it.

Tim Eaton is a Fellow of the College of Commercial Arbitrators and a member of the CPR Panel of Distinguished Neutral Arbitrators in Chicago. He is a member of the National Academy of Distinguished Neutrals and a member of the American Arbitration Association’s Roster of Commercial Arbitrators. He has lectured and written on arbitration topics. He is a litigation partner at the law firm of Taft, Stettinius & Hollister.

AFTER THE VETO: The Current State of Employment Arbitration in Brazil

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By Cristiane Ordonez and Colin McGeough, CPR Legal Interns

According to an article published by José Pastore, a professor at FEA-University of São Paulo, Brazil’s National Congress voted to approve the use of arbitration for the arbitration of employment disputes, but Brazilian President, Dilma Rousseff, reacted to the legislation by banning employment arbitration via her veto power. Pastore and others in Brazil advocate strongly in favor of ADR of employment disputes.

After the initial approval by the National Congress, employment arbitration was limited to directors and managers who agreed to use arbitration as their preferred dispute resolution method; however, according to Pastore, Brazil’s President banned even the limited use of employment arbitration because of the position of the Ministry of Labor. In short, the Ministry of Labor argued that the use of arbitration for some would lead to discrimination against others. Pastore also mentions, in his article, that the Ministry of Labor took issue with the reference to “managers” and “directors” because the Ministry felt those terms were strangers to Brazil’s legislation. In opposition to that, Pastore points out that the Labor Code, Civil Code, and others have those words present within their paragraphs, and any issue with “managers” and “directors” should not have been taken so seriously.

One of the largest frustrations from the veto seems to come from the idea that employment arbitration could have had such a positive effect on employment courts, the parties, and the judiciary system in Brazil. It could have, and likely would have, offered a quicker and more simplified method of dispute resolution than litigation because non-arbitral court disputes often have additional costs and longer proceedings that can span many months or even years.

Another disappointment comes with the veto as well, one that involves Brazil not having the benefit of being on par with so many other developed countries that have laws that use and allow employment arbitration. Pastore discusses the laws of the United States, various countries of the EU and Asia, and Australia and New Zealand. Furthermore, Pastore shows that 97% of collective agreements to settle employment disputes in the US opt for arbitration. Pastore’s theory, as we understand it, is that the use of employment arbitration by developed countries will cause these types of arbitrations to spread to Latin American countries too. Many Brazilians, including Pastore, hoped it would have happened by now, but the President’s veto has delayed such progress.

It must be said that Pastore also stresses the importance of parties having the autonomy to choose arbitration rather than being forced to litigate all employment disputes, or in fact having mandatory arbitrations. Allowing parties to choose between litigation and arbitration affords many more benefits than it does detriments because every dispute is different and party choice allows for different methods of conflict resolution that will best fit the needs of a party’s case. However, Pastore urges the use of arbitration as an option because non-arbitral proceedings are often transactions of “sealed packages.”  In other words, claimants ask for one thing, respondents offer another, and a judge ends up settling the dispute by ordering something completely different.

It is hard to believe, in the eyes of Pastore, that Brazil’s President and Labor Courts would ban an alternative dispute method (arbitration) for employment disputes because the courts are crowded, and both the courts and parties are suffering from high litigation costs. As mentioned earlier, Pastore believes the veto needs to be reviewed and the issue solved as quickly as possible.

Cristiane is a Brazilian attorney serving as a fellow of CPR, a Florida accredited mediator and a mediator and conciliator working in Brazil.  Colin is a summer legal intern at CPR, a rising 3L at New York Law School, and President of New York Law School’s Dispute Resolution Team.

Interview: Users Respond to CPR’s New International Rules – Most surprising and valued reported features

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InternationalRulesSlimJimCPR recently launched a new set of Rules for Administered Arbitration of International Disputes for use in cross-border business transactions. These new Rules reflect best practices, including the arbitration work of UNCITRAL, and address current issues in international arbitration, such as arbitrator impartiality, lengthy time frames to reach resolution, burdensome and unpredictable administrative costs and requirements. To celebrate their release, and introduce them across the globe, CPR held a series of well-attended launch events in London, Paris, Miami, Geneva, Madrid, Brazil and Washington, DC.

CPR’s newest event takes a deeper dive into one of the Rules’ most buzzed-about aspects, the Screened Selection Process for Party-Appointed Arbitrators ™. Responding to the need to both preserve the right of the parties to appoint their arbitrators and guarantee the fairness and impartiality of arbitration, the Screened Selection Process ™ is available under the new CPR Arbitration Rules, and will be discussed from the perspectives of the users, outside counsel and arbitrators on July 30, 2015 at Jenner & Block in Chicago and via live webcast.

Olivier P. AndreToday, we sat down with CPR’s Olivier André, Vice President, International and Dispute Resolution Services, for a recap of the launch events and a preview into our upcoming event.

To begin, could you provide a quick recap of CPR’s recent launch events celebrating the new rules? 

Over the past few months, we have organized eight events to celebrate the launch of the new CPR Rules for Administered Arbitration of International Disputes.  At each of these events, panelists discussed the key benefits and innovations of the rules from different perspectives – the corporate counsel, arbitration practitioner, arbitrator, and institutional perspectives.   The events were well attended and, whether they were held in the US, Europe or Brazil, they triggered a lot of interest.

What were some of the most memorable responses you received about the rules, either at the launch events or otherwise. What are people most surprised about, thrilled about, etc.?  

The new rules triggered a lot of interest because attendees felt that they really address many of the criticisms we currently hear about arbitration, such as high costs, lengthy timeframes, and bureaucratic administration of the proceedings.   With the new rules, CPR provides only the services that are necessary from an administering institution, and no more.  Thus, CPR gets involved at the very beginning – at the commencement and arbitrator appointment stages – and at the end – to provide a “light” review of the awards and to issue them.

In between, CPR handles all billing aspects, but lets the tribunal interface directly with the parties on all other matters.  All pleadings and filings to CPR are in electronic format only.  As a result of this “lean administration,” CPR is able to offer a very competitive schedule of administrative costs.  Administrative costs are capped at US$34,000 for disputes over US$500 million.   At a time when all companies are trying to contain the costs of dispute resolution – and where smaller companies simply cannot afford an expensive dispute resolution process – that was particularly appealing.

Another feature which triggered a lot interest is the provision under the rules for the issuing of the award within 12 months of the constitution of the tribunal.  Very often, users of arbitration have had terrible experiences of proceedings that lasted longer than court proceedings, when arbitration is supposed to offer a fast dispute resolution process.  The CPR rules require all actors of an arbitration to use their best efforts to comply with this time requirement.  Any scheduling order or extension from the tribunal that would result in extending this timeline must be approved by CPR.  Such extension requests are not new, but what was interesting to the attendees of these events was the fact that these approvals are not automatic.  Whenever such an approval is requested, CPR can convene all involved in the arbitration to discuss the factors that have led to the extension request.  This mechanism increases the accountability of all actors of the arbitral process while asking them to comply with a reasonable timeframe.   I say reasonable because historically the average length of CPR cases is a little over 11 months.

Finally, there was a lot of interest – particularly from the corporate counsel – for the provision in the rules which encourages the arbitral tribunal to propose settlement and assist the parties in initiating mediation at any stage of the arbitration proceedings.

CPR’s event in Chicago delves deeper into one of the most unique and valued features of the rules—the screened selection process. What were the challenges that necessitated this specific Rules feature? How did we address those challenges? What have responses from users of the new rules been like on this point in particular?  

Arbitrator selection is a key phase of any arbitration and getting qualified arbitrators appointed for a particular dispute is critical to ensure smooth proceedings.  The ability for the parties to choose their decision makers is also one of the main advantages of arbitration.  The CPR rules offer many options that arbitration users can choose from in their arbitration clause depending on the specific nature of the disputes they anticipate.  The bottom line is that they have the ability – and are encouraged – to really control the arbitrator selection process.

One of the options provided is called the CPR Screened Selection Process ™ for party-appointed arbitrators.  That process – which is unique to CPR arbitration rules – enables each party to choose their “party-appointed” arbitrators without them knowing which party has designated them.  CPR acts as a screen between the parties and their candidates.  This is an interesting process because, even though all arbitrators under CPR Rules must be impartial and independent, there can be some degree of ambiguity around the role that a party-appointed arbitrator is supposed to play.  This selection offers the parties the ability to choose their arbitrators while, at the same time, removing that ambiguity and changing the working dynamics among the members of a tribunal.

Olivier André is CPR’s Vice President, International and Dispute Resolution Services. In this capacity, Mr. André is responsible for CPR’s international activities, as well as international arbitration and mediation matters which are brought before CPR pursuant to its rules. He can be reached at oandre@cpradr.org. For Mr. André’s full bio, click here.

ADR Around the World: Taiwan

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This article is the third in a four-part CPR summer series that examines ADR in a number of rapidly changing locales around the world. If you missed it, you can find the first post, about Colombia, here, and the second about Mexico here.

ADR in Taiwan: Strong Foundations and a Chance to Build

By Gideon Hanft, CPR Research Assistant and Ngutjiua Hijarunguru, CPR Student Intern

In 2013, research institute Business Environment Risk Intelligence S.A. (BERI) ranked Taiwan as the fourth-best investment environment globally. Taiwan’s largest trading partners are the world’s three largest economies, Japan, China and the United States, and, as a leader in technology production, Taiwan has a dynamic and expanding role in the global economy. Taiwan’s economic growth has corresponded with a growth in commercial litigation, but Taiwan’s government and cultural legacy has also built a strong ADR foundation and offers opportunities for further expansion.

Confucianism has historically cultivated an “anti-lawsuit” attitude, and this heritage has served as “fertile soil for the development of mediation.” However, Taiwan’s strong history of societally promoted mediation has not prevented a rapid expansion of civil litigation. Professor Yun-Hsien Diana Lin of National Tsing Hua University, Taiwan ascribes this development to the “increase in judicial staff…, the progress of economic development and the growing prevalence of education among Taiwanese people.” Despite this expansion of litigation, Taiwan’s government has continued to promote mediation as an alternative through two main avenues.

First, Taiwan has legislation that creates mandatory mediation through Article 403 of Taiwan’s Code of Civil Practice. As Salvatore Casabona, ‎Associate Professor of Comparative Law & International Trade Law at University of Palermo, describes, “Originally provided only for small value claims, the range of civil dispute subjected to mandatory mediation were gradually broadened, including a variety of cases from neighbourhood and real property controversies to traffic accident and medical treatment ones.” This type of mediation is conducted in the courtroom by mediators appointed by the presiding judge. A settlement is legally enforced by the judge, but if mediation does not result in settlement litigation follows. Casabona’s analysis suggests Taiwanese litigants have been resistant to this mandatory mediation; for example, less than 1% of debt discharge cases that provoked mandatory mediation have seen mediation sustained. Nevertheless, the number of successfully sustained mediations has risen over time and this act’s expansion points to recognition of the value of ADR procedures.

The second type of mediation in Taiwan is not conducted through the court but, rather, similarly to mediations abroad, is conducted by outside institutions under mutually agreed upon procedures. For example, mediation under the Chinese Arbitration Association, Tapei (CAA) is regulated under the institution’s rules, passed October 2008, which parties may choose to use unless they mutually agree to other rules. Article 45 of Taiwan’s arbitration law specifies that an arbitrator can propose and accept a mediated settlement with legal enforceability.

Beyond these two main avenues, Taiwan has an additional type of out of court mediation that is more unique. This is called Town Mediation, and many see it as an outgrowth of the Confucian tradition. Regulated by the Town Mediation Act, Town Mediation was first passed in 1955 and this local process has been amended frequently since. Townships and administrative divisions maintain mediation committees of seven to fifteen to mediate civil disputes and minor criminal cases. This act specifies “Mediators are appointed by the mayor of township and county–administered city ‘from the men of eminent fairness, within the administrative district, who have legal knowledge or other expertise and good reputation.’” Mediators are often local elders and are not always lawyers.  In recent years, amendments to the Town Mediation Act have increased the role of local courts in overseeing the committees and passed rules to reduce the appearance of bias.

Town mediation retains a distinctly local identity, with traditional mores playing a vital role in the local mediators’ attempts to resolve disputes. As Yun-Hsien Diana Lin, Associate Professor at the Institute of Law for Science & Technology, National Tsing Hua University, Taiwan, writes, “Fairness must be judged in the context of…social relations instead of according to strict justice under the law.” Unlike court mediation, town mediation can only be entered into at the request of both parties, decisions are non-binding until certified by a local court, and the process is free of charge to both parties. Town mediation’s popularity has grown in recent years, especially in the context of minor criminal cases. The number of approved town mediation cases exceeded the number of sustained in-court mediations in 2010 and 96 percent of town mediation settlements brought before courts were approved in that year.

In addition to mediation, arbitration has become a more common method of dispute resolution in Taiwan. The leading arbitration institution is the CAA, founded in 1955. The CAA’s main services are arbitration and mediation conducted in Chinese and English. The CAA specializes in civil, commercial, international banking, construction, distribution, financial/investment, maritime, securities and transportation disputes. The arbitration act and rules governing CAA proceedings are the Republic of China Arbitration Act of 2002, modeled after the UNCITRAL Model Law of 1985, and the CAA Arbitration Rules.

While most arbitral proceeding in Taiwan are conducted under the auspices of the CAA, specialized bodies performing arbitrations include the Taiwan Construction Arbitration Association, the Labour Dispute Arbitration Association and the Chinese Engineering Arbitration Association.

Despite the expanded use of both town and court mediation, it is hard to say that they have kept up with the expansion of civil litigation. In 2008, the number of civil disputes filed with the Taiwanese District Court increased to 2.81 million from 1.37 million in 1998. While this litigious trend may be a concern, it also means there will likely be a greater market for ADR providers and educators in years to come.

In all, the ADR environment in Taiwan is promising. The growth of civil litigation has been met with governmental expansion of mandatory mediation, suggesting that Taiwan’s leaders are eager for an expansion of ADR.  Town Mediation offers an interesting example of local receptiveness to ADR procedures, and judicial willingness to certify proceedings shows a recognition by judges that outside processes can effectively resolve disputes. With these strong foundations, there is room to build an ever stronger ADR culture. As Taiwan’s growing economy and increasingly strong economic ties have made it one of most important and dynamic markets in the world, expanding ADR there could lead to the more effective resolution of disputes in the rest of Asia and beyond.

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Gideon Hanft, a research assistant at CPR, is entering his first year at Columbia Law School.
Ngutjiua Hijarunguru is a LLM graduate from the Center of the Study of Dispute Resolution at the University of Missouri-Columbia.

ADR Around the World: Mexico

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This article is the second in a four-part CPR summer series that examines the state of dispute resolution in a number of rapidly changing locales around the world. 

Mexico: A Globally Integrated Economy Moving Towards Effective Commercial Dispute Resolution

By Boaz Cohon, CPR Student Intern

Notwithstanding meager economic growth in recent years, when looking at how Mexico is situated within the global economy it is clear why the country is slated to become the 8th largest economy in the world by 2050. Mexico is fortuitously located adjacent to the world’s largest economy in the United States, which its companies have relatively unfettered access to via the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). This proximity has made Mexico “an important node in the world trading system” and situated it well in a multitude of global value chains (GVCs). Furthermore, President Enrique Peña Nieto’s financial reforms have broken up telecom oligopolies and liberalized the energy sector, creating even more incentives for multinational enterprises (MNEs) to invest.

One strategy for insuring Mexico reaches its burgeoning economic potential is to improve the efficacy of mechanisms for resolving commercial disputes. Currently, commercial dispute resolution in Mexico offers a mix of problems and potential, with some encouraging, recent improvements but options that are still lacking by international standards. Absent these effective methods, Mexico can still be a challenging place to do business for both domestic firms and MNEs.

Procedural changes to commercial litigation have—auspiciously—already been passed and begun to be implemented. In 2011 the Mexican legislature passed a series of well-received reforms including an expedited process with oral hearings for smaller monetary claims, a reduction in procedural timeframes, and a decrease in the number of appeals (writs of amparo) a disputing party can make.

If implemented, these reforms, coupled with the much larger judicial reform of 2008, would undoubtedly have a positive impact on Mexico’s rule of law and judiciary. The World Justice Project ranked Mexico 79th out of 102 countries in the most recent iteration of its Rule of Law Index, and citizens continue to be skeptical of the judicial system as a whole with 54% of respondents in a recent survey saying that the court system has a bad influence on the Mexican state.

This apparent lack of trust in litigation, even in the face of reforms, has likely contributed to a rapid rise of arbitration as the go-to mechanism for resolving commercial disputes. Mexico has adopted the UNCITRAL model law for both domestic and international arbitrations with only minor modifications, and is a signatory of the New York Convention (1958). Over time the judiciary has also become increasingly accepting of arbitration and has remained appropriately aloof from outcomes, not intervening in decisions and enforcing awards unless a clear procedural issue has been demonstrated.

Interestingly, the same upbeat tone cannot be taken when describing other forms of alternative dispute resolution (ADR) in Mexico in the context of resolving commercial disputes. Even as the business population has warmly taken to arbitration, it has, at least comparatively speaking, shunned mediation — despite its cropping up in many other areas of disagreement, such as medical malpractice suits, juvenile justice cases, and labor dispute resolution. In commercial disputes a culture of Pyrrhic victory and notions of the need to ‘win’ legal battles may be obstructing widespread acceptance of mediation in the business community.

This has remained the case even in the face of powerful drivers of change. In 2001 the American Bar Association (ABA) and Freedom House in conjunction with the United States Agency for International Development in Mexico (USAID/Mexico) pursued a program establishing 28 mediation centers. The program increased use, but only to a limited degree.  A 2008 constitutional amendment that set out principles and procedures of mediation, obligations of participants and practitioners, and created Alternative Justice Centers across the country likewise did not immediately incentivize significantly more disputants to undertake mediation to resolve commercial disputes.

Perhaps change needs to come from inside the ADR community in Mexico, and, if so, two organizations look primed to help realize such a cultural shift. The Mediation and Arbitration Center of the National Chamber of Commerce of Mexico City (CANACO) has a broad focus including arbitration and mediation and is the most well-known mediation provider in the country, and The Arbitration Center of Mexico (CAM) primarily focuses on arbitration but is looking to expand into mediation.

In sum, as the complex economic machine that is Mexico continues to gain momentum, it would no doubt benefit from lubricating the gears with a diverse array of effective dispute resolution tools for domestic and international firms.

The CPR Institute would like to thank Boaz Cohon for this contribution. Boaz, a summer public policy/legal intern at CPR, is majoring in Political Science and History at Vanderbilt.

THE NEUTRAL’S NOTEPAD: Consider Expanded Use of Written Witness Statements

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With this post, The CPR Institute introduces a new “CPR Speaks” series feature in which members of our esteemed panel of neutrals will periodically contribute their thoughts on developments and best practices in dispute resolution.

THE NEUTRAL’S NOTEPAD: U.S. Advocates and Arbitrators Should Consider an Expanded Use of Written Witness Statements in U.S. Domestic Arbitration

BenderRay-41309-06By Raymond G. Bender

One technique for creating efficiencies in arbitration is submitting the direct testimony of fact witnesses in writing rather than orally.  Written witness statements provide detailed testimony a witness would offer (including references to relevant documents) if questioned live.  The written testimony is signed by the witness, its truth and accuracy is sworn to or affirmed, and the statements are exchanged in advance of the hearing.  Each witness providing a written statement appears at the hearing for cross-examination by opposing counsel and questioning by the tribunal.

Written witness statements can afford material advantages in arbitration.  For example, as lengthy oral testimony becomes unnecessary, written testimony can save days or even weeks (in a complex case).  Exchanging witness statements in advance also permits opposing counsel to prepare fully for cross-examination. In fact, exchanging witness testimony prior to hearing permits all of the participants in the hearing—counsel and arbitrators alike—to focus before hearing on the key issues in dispute, formulate pertinent questions for the witness, and conduct a more efficient and streamlined proceeding.  Moreover, witness statements can obviate or lessen the need for depositions since opposing counsel will have advanced notice of a witness’ direct testimony.  Finally, written statements can serve an important fact-finding function when depositions are disallowed or limited to key witnesses.

Why are written witness statements so common in international arbitration, but not as prevalent in U.S. domestic arbitration?  Some U.S. counsel and arbitrators may be unfamiliar with the technique, particularly if they serve exclusively in U.S. domestic proceedings where oral testimony is the norm.  Others may believe that drawbacks associated with witness statements outweigh the advantages.

For example, some may feel that lawyers draft witness statements and the testimony therefore is not as spontaneous or genuine as when a witness testifies live.  A witness also might rely too heavily on the lawyer and not review the testimony carefully or completely.

However, when preparing witnesses for oral testimony, attorneys also typically assist and invite them to rehearse their hearing presentations.  Attorneys have a duty to admonish witnesses concerning the truth and accuracy of their testimony—whether they testify orally or in writing—and to highlight the need to defend the testimony under cross-examination and arbitrator questioning.  Witnesses also sign and/or swear or attest to their written testimony, and such formalities signal that witness statements need to be truthful and accurate and not approached in a careless manner.

Another potential concern about written versus oral direct testimony is that the tribunal’s first exposure to the witness would be on cross-examination.  No lawyer wants arbitrators to observe a witness initially in a defensive posture under questioning by opposing counsel.

This concern can be addressed by permitting counsel offering the witness to conduct a brief direct examination (e.g., 15 to 30 minutes), depending on the nature and size of the testimony and the case.  This lets the tribunal hear from the witness in his or her own words.  Such abbreviated direct examination could include background information on the witness and/or a summary of key aspects of the witness’ written testimony.   This direct testimony should be relatively brief so as not to frustrate a fundamental purpose for using written witness statements, i.e., to achieve efficiency and cost-savings.

A final potential concern is that using written statements prevents arbitrators from evaluating a witness’ credibility on direct examination.

There normally are sufficient opportunities for a tribunal to assess witness credibility other than on direct examination—most critically during cross-examination, but also on re-direct, and during questioning by the tribunal as well.  Moreover, permitting an abbreviated direct exam before a witness is cross-examined, as discussed above, affords yet another window for arbitrators to assess witness credibility.

Granted, written witness statements may not be an optimal solution for every witness or in every case.  For example, where believability of a key witness or witnesses may influence the outcome in an arbitration, presenting the witness’ direct testimony live may be preferable to using a written witness statement.

Additionally, any decision to present the direct testimony of fact witnesses in written or oral form ultimately should reside with the parties and counsel. Arbitration still is a creature of party agreement, and arbitrators in U.S. domestic arbitration should never compel the use of one technique over the other.

However, here are some general practice tips that arbitrators might keep in mind, not only to help ensure that counsel consider the full range of their options, but to utilize written direct testimony, if they so choose, in an optimal way:

  • Arbitrators should encourage written witness statements where appropriate and highlight the benefits surrounding their use.  Including witness statements as an item on the preliminary hearing agenda, and having an open discussion of the pros and cons during the preliminary hearing itself, can expose the technique to counsel otherwise unfamiliar with it.
  • Arbitrators should condition the use of written direct testimony on the witness’s attendance at hearing for cross-examination and questioning by the tribunal (unless all parties and the tribunal agree to waive a witness’ appearance).  Cross-examination of witnesses generally is considered a fundamental right in the U.S. (and in other common law jurisdictions) and this right should be safeguarded when written witness statements are used.
  • Arbitrators should permit sponsoring counsel to question the witness briefly on direct examination (e.g., to summarize key points) so the witness can “warm to the seat” before being turned over for cross-examination.  This procedure lets the witness become comfortable in the arbitral setting and also allows the tribunal to observe witness credibility (albeit briefly) on direct examination.
  • U.S. arbitrators should review witness statements in preparation for the hearing, listen attentively during examination by counsel and, if appropriate, pose follow-up questions to the witness to clarify relevant facts, gain insight as to witness credibility, or achieve a better understanding of the case.

In conclusion, greater reflection and dialogue on written witness statements should give U.S. counsel and arbitrators an enhanced appreciation for their use in U.S. domestic arbitration. U.S. arbitration proceedings would surely benefit from this development.

Raymond Bender is a full-time commercial Arbitrator in domestic and international disputes.  He is a member of the CPR Panel of Distinguished Neutral Arbitrators for Washington, D.C., Technology, and Cross-Border Disputes; the American Arbitration Association’s Roster of Commercial Arbitrators for Washington, D.C., Technology, and Large, Complex Cases; the International Center for Dispute Resolution (ICDR) Panel of International Arbitrators; and the Silicon Valley Arbitration and Mediation Center’s List of the World’s Leading Technology Neutrals.  He also has served in International Chamber of Commerce (ICC) and ad hoc arbitrations.  Mr. Bender is an Adjunct Professor at the Washington College of Law, American University, Washington D.C., where he teaches Alternative Dispute Resolution Law, and serves on the Arbitration Faculty of the International Law Institute.

ADR Around the World: Colombia

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Throughout this summer, in part inspired by CPR’s recent activity in Brazil, “CPR Speaks” will be publishing a four-part series looking at the state of alternative dispute resolution (ADR) in a number of other rapidly changing locales. We begin with Colombia, to be followed by Taiwan, Turkey and Mexico.

Colombia: A Dynamic Economy with a Vibrant ADR Environment

By Boaz Cohon, CPR Student Intern

In 2014, market research firm Capital Economics reported that Colombia had surpassed Argentina as the third largest economy in Latin America. This economic success surprised few, as Colombia’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) had grown close to 5% in both 2013 and 2014, despite the slowdown occurring throughout the rest of Latin America and falling oil prices (one of Colombia’s main exports), all while keeping inflation under 4%. Moreover, Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) in Colombia grew to $16,198,401,721 in 2013 from only $10,564,672,091 in 2008.

Colombia is a paragon of excellence in economic expansion for Latin America, and one factor that has helped contribute to Colombia’s stunning growth—particularly its high levels of FDI—is a corporate and legal environment conducive to international as well as domestic alternative dispute resolution (ADR). Continue reading →

The Future of Online Dispute Resolution: Transformation & Preservation

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On June 5, 2015, CPR President & CEO Noah Hanft delivered the keynote address at “ODR 2015,” held at Pace University Law School — an event that brought together the world’s leading online dispute resolution (ODR) practitioners, policymakers, entrepreneurs, members of the judiciary and academics.

Over the past few years, use of online dispute resolution has grown and matured in ways that are astonishing, both in the range of uses and the speed with which it has been embraced. Mediation and arbitration are rapidly moving online. Consumers, businesses and lawyers increasingly expect to be able to resolve any issues that arise 24 hours a day and 7 days a week, right from their laptops and tablets. Transactions also now routinely cross the globe, and disputants are unwilling to sort out complex issues of jurisdiction every time a problem crops up.

Enter ODR, which is the application of information and communications technology to the practice of dispute resolution. Demand is growing steadily. Continue reading →

On Norton Rose Fulbright Litigation Survey: In Litigation v. Arbitration Debate, Best Answer is “It Depends”

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In mid-May, law firm Norton Rose Fulbright released its 11th annual Litigation Trends Survey—the broadest the firm had ever undertaken, compiling results from more than 800 corporate counsel (primarily general counsel) representing companies across 26 countries on dispute-related issues and challenges. According to the firm survey summary, “While each country or region surveyed is unique, one common theme comes through loud and clear—corporate counsel around the world see the growing litigiousness of the  business environment as an important trend that bears watching.”

Survey results reflected significant corporate spend on litigation, with 34% of US respondents reporting litigation budgets of 1 million to 5 million, as compared to only 26% two years ago. There was also a slight increase in the companies reporting litigation budgets of $10 million or more.

One point of particular interest was the broad utilization of international arbitration, particularly for larger companies (more than $1 billion in revenue). Across all regions and industries, more than two-thirds of companies with $5 to $10 billion in revenue preferred arbitration, and were also much more likely to have been involved in an arbitration in the past 12 months (38%). Specifically, given the choice, for disputes that were international in nature, nearly half of total respondents said they preferred arbitration over litigation, with about a quarter choosing litigation and the remaining quarter answering, “It depends.” Continue reading →

Arbitration Fairness Act of 2015 (AFA): An Overly Simplistic Approach?

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The Arbitration Fairness Act of 2015 (AFA), recently introduced by Senator Al Franken and Representative Hank Johnson, would amend the Federal Arbitration Act, 9 U.S.C. §§ 1 et seq. (FAA), to eliminate mandatory, pre-dispute arbitration clauses in employment, antitrust or civil rights matters—as well as all nearly all consumer contracts, for such things as cars, credit cards and cell phones. Allowing parties to agree to arbitration only after a dispute has arisen, the AFA would apply to “any dispute or claim that arises on or after” the date of AFA’s passing. The legislation would also give federal courts—instead of arbitrators—the authority to rule on an agreement’s validity and enforceability.

This is not the first legislative effort to narrow the use of pre-dispute arbitration agreements; somewhat similar bills were introduced in 2011 and then again in 2013, but neither made it out of committee. While some are applauding this step towards banning what they refer to as “forced” arbitration, others have expressed concerns that requiring parties to agree to arbitration only after a dispute has already arisen might take away the parties’ critical ability to utilize arbitration preventatively, planning for it in order to avoid disputes in the first place. Others question the wisdom of transferring these responsibilities away from arbitrators and to an already beleaguered court system. Finally, while the AFA does not expressly prohibit businesses from entering into pre-dispute arbitration agreements with other businesses, some question the effect this might have on the enforceability of arbitration in business contexts where there is potential consumer application.

Institute for Conflict Prevention & Resolution (CPR) President & CEO Noah Hanft observed that, “Just as with litigation, there are circumstances where arbitration may be abused. But, if practiced properly and thoughtfully, as it should be, arbitration remains a  more effective, efficient and less costly way to resolve certain disputes—a result from which consumers can clearly benefit as well.”

Hanft concluded, “Care must be taken that any legislation aimed at protecting abuses in the use of arbitration not be overly simplistic or condemn a practice that has brought real benefits in a multitude of circumstances around the world. Even advocates of tort reform that decry litigation abuses don’t propose sweeping bans on certain types of litigation.”